Recently, the increasing availability of digital elevation models has promoted the use of computer technology for the calculation and discrimination of terrain properties.
DEM -derived data sets such as slope, aspect, hydro-graphical pattern and shaded relief are being increasingly exploited in terrain analysis. These morphometric parameters are not only less prone to human error but can be used to objectively and quantitatively compare terrain units Dymond et al.
The CGA is actively involved in a number of projects relating to terrain analyses. This includes land component mapping Van Niekerk, , Mashimbye et al. Computer-assisted discrimination of morphological units on north-central Crete Greece by applying multivariate statistics to local relief gradients. Geomorphology, 58, Towards structured-knowledge models for landform representation. F, , Automated mapping of land components from digital elevation data.
Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 20, An automated approach to the classification of the slope units using digital data. Geomorphology, 21, Automated classification of generic terrain features in digital elevation models. Reduction of errors in digital terrain parameters used in soil-landscape modelling. Geoderma, 77, Maneuver analysis helps resolve questions concerning on-road and off-road trafficability, denied routes, the locations of enemy positions or obstacles, and numerous other similar considerations.
The result of maneuver analysis is our most advantageous use of the terrain in the attack. The terrain and how the weather affects it is a common thread binding each BOS together in the overall staff planning process. Every ground vehicle must move on the same terrain in the AO or AI. Their movement and actions are often constrained to specific AAs or mobility corridors leading to the point of breach. Planners must consider these constraints, for if the terrain or weather allows the combat power to outstrip its resupply, or if combat vehicles are forced into moving too slowly or for too long in open areas, the result can range from a slowed or incomplete mission to unacceptable losses or mission failure.
Since this set of tasks requires analysis of how vehicles will interact with the terrain, it requires a somewhat different focus. The planner can use the MCOO to classify the AAs and cross-mobility corridors as unrestricted, restricted or severely restricted. Total vehicle capacity either in a column for a convoy or across a frontage in a maneuver formation.
The numbers of natural or manmade obstacles along the route. The numbers of gaps or water-crossing sites. The route's composition gravel, dirt, pavement and its potential for degradation in inclement weather. The amount of cover and concealment, where it is good and where it is not.
The availability of space for the force to transition from convoy "formation" to attack formation with minimal difficulty. The cross-country off-road and on-road trafficability products are especially useful in this analysis. The planner can create or use weapons fan and line-of-sight plots to identify areas the enemy could use for ambush sites and the likely locations of the ambush vehicles. Planners must conduct an integrated analysis of the weather and terrain using full situational awareness.
Rainfall on the generally rocky, nonvegetated terrain at the NTC will have a different set of effects than on the generally wetter, heavily vegetated terrain in Korea or Europe.
In addition, planners must separately evaluate each dry or wet gap as a potential obstacle given the composition of the force and the outlook of the weather. When there is no rainfall, maneuver units may be capable of crossing dry or wet gaps without engineer support.
As rainfall increases, however, dry gaps become wet and wet gaps can become passable only with bridging assets or ford preparation, requiring bypass if such assets are unavailable.
Each gap the force must cross is a drain on time and assets, and requires a significant amount of coordination. When the force must use crossing assets, staff planners must ensure there are sufficient assets to make an uninterrupted series of crossings along the planned route s.
Breach Analysis Breach analysis tasks are an extension of maneuver analysis tasks, and involve detailed breach planning at the unit level. The planner must evaluate the routes from the LD through both tactical and protective obstacles. The planner must consider the terrain, the weather, the SITTEMP, current obstacle intelligence, friendly movement capabilities, the optimal sites for ABF and SBF positions, friendly and enemy weapon systems capabilities, and any other information relevant to the operation.
A breach is a mission shared by many BOSs, and is critically dependent on proper evaluation and use of the terrain and weather and full participation by all BOSs. At the breach site itself, the planner's role is critical in influencing the selection of the POB. These products and data allow the planner to get near-real-time data on obstacles, enemy positions, and potential breach sites. Once the locations of the enemy obstacles and BPs are known, the planner can use the products to identify the terrain most vulnerable to direct fire from enemy BPs.
The planner can pinpoint enemy direct fire systems and obstacles, check enemy obstintel, and the POB. If the planner knows the locations of individual fighting positions, he can identify exactly which positions are within range of, and are able to observe, the obstacles and SBF positions. In this way, the planner pinpoints locations along the obstacles which may provide cover or concealment from the most direct fire weapons systems. He can select the positions that the breach force's security element can use to provide local security at the breach sites.
Planners also support the breach force commander with vegetation and soil condition overlays that indicate areas that are conducive to the breaching techniques available mechanical, explosive, manual or electronic. Terrain products indicate the type of terrain in the area rolling, rocky, soft and its micro-effects on visibility, movement and breaching. The engineer and S-2 also use the MCOO to identify mobility corridors the enemy could use for a counterattack. Based on these analyses, the planner can recommend the best area s for the breach.
Each tool has advantages and limitations, and both are used to give planners optimal battlefield evaluation and visualization. Until recently, terrain teams were only present at the division and corps levels and provided support to their command group and MSCs, so the DTSS was only available at the division level or higher.
However, under the Force XXI restructuring initiatives, there is now a DTSS suite and a four-person terrain detachment with each maneuver brigade in the digital corps. The DTSS is invaluable when units are preparing to enter an area of operations.
It is a powerful tool that can create extremely precise products that evaluate all relevant considerations: terrain, weather, soils, hydrology, vegetation, and other factors. It can create products such as soil analysis and vegetation overlays and a MCOO.
These products are usually made well before a unit enters a particular AO. The advantage of the DTSS is that all the input data and output products are digital and can be stored, sent, printed, or later manipulated to fit any particular need. The system also has a limited rapid reproduction capability so that products can be made and printed while in theater. Terrain teams normally produce a general suite of products for each mission to support the MDMP. These products are often distributed down to the brigade S-2 in hardcopy format, although local distribution SOP may vary.
These products are intended for use by all BOSs; all planners need to know these products exist and ensure they have access to them as soon as they are available. In addition to this general set of products, teams and detachments can provide more detailed and customized products, depending on the situation and request.
For more information on terrain teams and their products, see FM There are several different programs directly available to the unit-level planner to conduct terrain analysis tasks, but the most commonly used and available is TerraBase II. TerraBase II displays terrain in 3D perspective views and conducts relief-based analysis. Many types of imagery and digital maps can be draped over a 3D relief of the terrain to provide a very useful representation of the terrain features.
TerraBase II is a freeware program created to support units at the brigade level and below. It is an easy-to-use terrain evaluation tool usable on low-end PCs. The program provides planners from any BOS the ability to create the specific products important to the ground soldier, such as lines of sight, weapons fans and image maps.
The Engineer School currently uses TerraBase in engineer officer training, to support the expectation of maneuver commanders that the engineer is the terrain expert. Some additional analysis functions include slope and elevation analyses, terrain categorization, and oblique and perspective views.
The program also creates "movies" showing a rotating panoramic view from a specified location, or "fly-throughs" over the terrain using user-identified viewpoint information. The program is limited in that it does not consider the effects of vegetation, hydrology or weather, so the planner must always evaluate the validity and utility of the TerraBase II products based on these unassessed criteria.
Planners can download versions 3. Version 3. The intent is to provide the field a means to self-train on the program using the package plus any locally reproduced copies of the package. The downloaded programs come with very little digital data, but the tutorial package includes digital elevation, map and imagery data for common military training areas, such as NTC, JRTC and CMTC, plus data for other areas of interest. This imagery allows the user to combine the tactical analysis tools of TerraBase with satellite imagery that commanders and staffs often find easier to interpret and more useful than digital map data.
Re-transmission position planning. Estimating slope along routes for resupply vehicles and others. Delineation of air avenues of approach. Placing OPs for optimal viewing and concealed movement. Placing artillery pieces on low-slope areas.
Identifying potential ambush sites. TerraBase is free and easy to learn, and anyone in the force can use and apply TerraBase and its products to their missions. However, it is important to know that much of the digital image, map and elevation data used is "Limited Distribution" and only DOD military and approved civilian personnel are authorized to use the data.
Products received before the mission assist in planning. Products made or received during the mission assist in course correction and mission flexibility. Products There are three basic types of topographic or terrain visualization products with which the planner needs to be familiar: standard, nonstandard and TerraBase II products.
Standard products are hardcopy or softcopy items which are mass-produced for the DOD and are available through the supply system using an NSN. These include hardcopy or digital data such as maps, digital imagery, elevation data, and other feature data. Nonstandard products also include hardcopy and softcopy items, but they are not mass-produced. Terrain teams create these products using the DTSS and they are tailored to support specific operations.
These products graphically illustrate the latest information about an area and serve as tactical decision aids TDAs. A TDA is a product used to assist planners and commanders in making decisions about operations based on the effects of terrain and weather. An example is a cross-country mobility model illustrating the speed at which a mechanized brigade can move off-road.
A day-old satellite image with military grid lines and a legend is much more useful than a year old map. Planners can use TerCat products to identify low-slope areas from which artillery pieces can fire, while elevation tints are used to identify air AAs.
A sample package of nonstandard TDA products created for an operation could include the items listed below; the full range of products is listed in FM Key terrain. Avenues of approach. LOC - roads, bridges, tunnels, sharp curves, steep grades. Hydrology - depth, width, velocity, bottom material, bank height, ford sites. Facilities - natural resources, manufacturing facilities. Image map may be combined with facilities and key terrain. Elevation tint, placed over maps or imagery. The third type of product is the TerraBase product created at the unit level.
This is simply any product created using any function of TerraBase which is then used for tactical terrain visualization, evaluation and decisionmaking. The TMF is a set of mission-specific topographic products that is focused on a 10km x 10km area of operations, and is created in advance of the operation to support the IPB process.
It may include: Standard products, either hardcopy or digital. Nonstandard products created by a terrain team. TerraBase II products specifically created for the operation.
Intelligence and weather reports. Graphics from the Engineer planner. Any other data deemed important to the planner. The table below summarizes the different types of products a planner might choose to have in a TMF for the missions listed in the table. The list is not all-inclusive but is intended to illustrate the common products available to the planner.
It is recommended that the planner create the TerraBase products on an image background or a map background. Terrain Mission Folder Descriptions. Figure 4 below is a TerraBase II representation of the terrain in the Live-Fire area at NTC shown in a reflectance view, with weapons fans and range circles on the east side of the area.
The rays from the center of the weapons fan indicate visible areas or lines of visibility; areas with no rays are not visible from the center and, therefore, cannot be hit with direct fire. The range circles are user-specified, and can indicate maximum effective range, minimum effective range, or whatever the planner desires to show to illustrate the tactical point.
Note that each of the weapons fans has significant gaps in direct-fire coverage. Figure 4. Image is a TerraBase II ver 3. Surrounding the sample BPs in the east are west-facing weapons fans and oweapon-range circles. Example Scenario The intent of the terrain analysis tasks, tools and products described thus far is to give the planner guidelines on how to make the best assessments and recommendations of the situational template and maneuver plan, culminating with success at the POB and POP.
The example that follows uses an area at the NTC to illustrate these points. Scenario: You are a task force planner supporting a mission to attack and seize an objective defended by a task-organized mechanized infantry company BMPs and tanks. Enemy weapons can range out to meters, and there will be complex obstacles wire, mine fields and tank ditches. You are trying to find the best ways to attack in zone against this entrenched defense.
You must ensure the movement to and through the reduction area makes the best use of the terrain. For the purpose of this exercise, you will create and use TerraBase products only.
Review the summary of scenario conditions below for more details on the tactical situation. Temperature High in the mid 90s; low in the mid 60s. Precipitation None expected; none in the last 96 hours. Wind Moving southwest to northeast at 20 kph. Terrain An open valley, approximately 4 km across and 10 km deep, with high ground on the north, south and to the west straight ahead.
Enemy Task-organized mechanized infantry company BMPs and tanks. Friendly A mechanized task force in the Limited Conversion Division XXI LCD 21 organization, two mechanized infantry companies, one tank company, one engineer company and typical FS assets ; the engineer is the breach force commander.
Table 2. Summary of Scenario Tactical Considerations. Template Analysis. The engineer and S-2 planners have created an initial situational template Figure 5 , and the planners have produced an initial COA maneuver graphic Figure 6. Figure 5. Situational template overlaid on an image map of the scenario defense area at NTC. Graphic represents templated enemy positions and obstacles, Drinkwater Lake and a phase line for reference. Image map created in TerraBase II, ver 3.
Figure 6. Image map of the scenario area showing the templated enemy positions, obstacles and the maneuver COA graphics. The enemy defense takes advantage of the long valley by creating an elongated kill sack which the attacker can choose to drive directly into or try to avoid by slowly moving along the valley walls. To create the best TerraBase products, the planner or product creator should have the latest available digital data that covers the terrain. The weapons fan function, combined with the range circle function, best serve the purpose behind creating the TerraBase II products.
Each figure shows two plots; the upper plot shows a weapons fan with minimal deadspace and the lower plot shows a fan with more deadspace the worst and best possibilities for the attacker. The weapons fans extend out to 4, meters from each position. Along with the weapons fans are range circles drawn at distances of 2,, 3, and 4, meters from each position. The weapons fans graphically represent what the enemy can see and cannot see from the BPs, thereby identifying areas they can fire into and areas they cannot deadspace.
The range circles allow the planner to estimate the locations where friendly vehicles enter the maximum effective ranges of the various enemy weapon systems. Each product is simply a tool to assist the planner in the terrain and weather analysis and integration processes. These TerraBase products were made using high-resolution image maps of the terrain which have the potential to show great detail.
These images cover a large area on the ground and, although the planner can pick out details, the images do not show their full potential. On images such as these, the planner can zoom in to such a degree that fine details, such as individual boulders, shrubs and trees, become visible.
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